The bug that changed the world
The prickly pear cactus (“nopal” in Spanish) can be found throughout dry areas of Western states. It grows randomly in pastures of my South Dakota ranch where our “wild” variety is cold-tolerant. The plant, normally disliked due to sharp spikes and tiny bristles, has for centuries had multiple and important uses. Its flat, edible pads and juice are in traditional Southwest tacos and fajitas. In summer, the yellow flower produces a purplish fruit (“tuna” in Spanish) atop the cactus, having flavor of watermelon. The prickly pear plant has been used also to treat diabetes and obesity. During droughts wildlife and cattle, after ranchers burn the spines off, eat prickly pear cactus as fodder. The cut pads were historically used by Plains tribes, such as the Sioux and Crow, to rub its sticky juice onto painted rawhide (parfleche) to gloss and waterproof them.
The virtually forgotten contribution of prickly pear cacti comes from a tiny female bug (cochineal) living on its pads, hidden within white, cottony spots. The beetle uses juice of cactus to produce a brilliant, permanent red dye. When the insect in the web is squeezed, the body containing 80% red color, stains whatever it contacts.
The white, cottony spots on several cacti are webs where the cactus bug lives out its life.
A bug from a cactus web has been squeezed, releasing a red dye found in its body.
The cactus beetle has been used for centuries by Indian tribes to dye objects because its brilliant red color is permanent, unlike dyes from plants that fade or change color over time. The dried and ground beetles are boiled with porcupine quills to easily obtain rich, red color to plait, wrap and sew-down quills used for Native American clothing and household items. Mexico, Central and South America Indians dyed textiles as cotton, wool and ceremonial objects, equating red with the sun, blood and sacrifice.
Articles inside my replicated buffalo hide tipi and furnishings show red porcupine quillwork used in plaiting, wrapping and sew-down techniques*. (White line is hide anchoring rope.)
In Mexico where cacti grow tall, some plants might host a thousand cochineal. Since the 1300s Maya/Aztec Indians genetically produced a larger “domesticated” beetle growing it in cultivated fields to harvest red dye. The demand for this brilliant dye led Aztec conqueror, Montezuma, to demand from eleven cities a tribute of 2,000 hand-woven, cochineal-dyed blankets and 40 bags of dried bugs. This was a huge demand; it requires 7,000 beetles for one pound of dye.
When the Spanish came in the 1400s, they observed a red dye sold in markets. Realizing its importance, dried bugs were sent back to Spain causing a sensation after it was tested by guild dyers for its perfect, color-fast red color. Soon cochineal was used for the red on church vestments worn by clergy and clothing attire of the rich. Cochineal became second in value next to gold; more valuable than silver in exports sent to Spain.
Soon Europeans realized the importance of the red color inside the cactus bug, but due to its economic value, its origin was a guarded secret by Spain for almost 200 years. Anton van Leeuwenhock attempted to discover the secret of the creature involved through his new instrument, the microscope, believing it was an “insect” found in a tree. A spy traveling in Mexico discovered the red color came from bugs living on cactus and smuggled live cochineal to Spain, but most died during the long voyage. Meanwhile, ships traveling to Spain were attacked by the English and Dutch for gold, cochineal and silver.
The value of the dried insect was enormous as it proved easy to dye military uniforms where red was associated with strength and victory, as dyeing the British red coats. Through the trade route, red wool cloth found its way into use by Native Americans as a wearing robe to replace those of buffalo and to trim bags, clothing and parfleche.
Courting robe of Chief Blue Thunder, Lakota Sioux leader of the Brule’ band.
My replicated Leadership Shirt of Red Cloud shows red and blue on bibs, sleeve and leg tabs. To the Lakota the colors refer to the Thunder Being, blue for Thunder and red for Lightning, sometimes called “Night” and “Day”. The wool would historically come from English dyers, using red from cochineal.
The art world changed when the Dutch, famous for their paintings, learned the red of cochineal did not fade in artwork. Michelangelo, Rembrandt and Van Dyke began using the juice of the cactus bug in their paintings.
In the 1860s the demand for cochineal was still strong, where Oaxaca in Mexico harvested 500,000 pounds of cochineal and Guatemala exported nearly 1.5 million pounds per year. But fashion soon dictated black as a favorite color and during the Victorian era red often became associated with sin and passion.
A less expensive German-made red from coal tar was available by 1878. This was two years after the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Sioux were confined to reservations. The use of porcupine quillwork and dyeing them was generally given up in lieu of imported Italian glass beads. By now the production of cochineal and its use virtually ended. It would have been forgotten except for a new, safe color needed this 21st century.
Resurgence of interest in the bug on prickly pear cactus began when the food and drink industry sought a “natural” red dye to replace synthetic colors made from coal, believed to be carcinogenic. Cochineal provided a solution for red coloring, but the bug was kept secret in its listing on food labels. Vegans, noted for their purity in avoiding animal parts, discovered to their horror through researching labels, they were ingesting bug juice in yogurts, candies, ketchup, sodas and even bugs in lipstick!
c. Larry Belitz, Plains Indian Material Culture Consultant, October 15, 2020 *The history, dyeing and techniques of porcupine quillwork, are found in our award-winning “LAKOTA QUILLWORK, Art and Legend” 27 minute DVD, a bilingual film featuring Flossie Bear Robe and Alice Blue Legs.